Chinese progress on SMR, thorium molten-salt & lead-bismuth reactors; Rosatom develops underwater reactors, builds land-based SMRs, floating NPPs, explores African market; drone attack on Russian RBMK

Russia/China Nuclear Energy Digest #8

In this issue:

1. China installs core module of world’s first land-based small-modular reactor (SMR)

2. Russia develops underwater reactor module to power Arctic fossil fuel extraction and military installations

3. Rosatom prepares to construct Arctic SMR while building floating nuclear power plants for export

4. China’s experimental thorium molten-salt reactor receives operating license

5. China acquires ability to manufacture corrosion-resistant structural steel for fourth-generation lead-cooled fast reactor at industrial scale

6. Rosatom secures agreements with African countries to export nuclear technology and extract uranium resources

7. Rosatom CEO Alexei Likhachev meets with Putin, reports record corporate earnings, nuclear fuel exports, and holdings of overseas uranium reserves

8. Drone crashes near Russian nuclear power plant with Chernobyl-style RBMK reactors as Ukraine escalates attacks

9. IAEA Director General Rafael Grossi discusses Fukushima, AUKUS, Zaporizhzhia during first official visit to China

10. China approves six large reactor units in addition to ten approved last year, with expectations for hundreds more in coming decades

Core Module Installed for Chinese SMR

The core module of China’s 125MWe ACP100, or Linglong One, small modular reactor (SMR), comprised of the reactor core and steam generator in a single pressure vessel, has been successfully installed. The event took place on August 10, less than one month after the module rolled off the factory floor. The short time it took from the manufacturing of the module to its installation is proof of the speed enabled by modular construction.

China National Nuclear Corporation (CNNC), which oversees the reactor’s development and construction, claims that the core module is 100% indigenous. Its design was led by the Nuclear Power Institute of China (NPIC), the CNNC subsidiary responsible for developing nuclear propulsion for the PLA Navy in addition to civilian nuclear power equipment. China First Heavy Industries (中国一重) served as the manufacturing contractor.

Small modular reactors are considered the future of nuclear power alongside fourth-generation advanced designs. China is the first country in the world to attempt the construction of a commercial SMR, not considering Russia’s floating platforms. The demonstration unit is located at the Changjiang NPP in China’s southernmost Hainan Province. Future units are likely to be built much closer to sources of demand such as cities, industrial areas, and remote islands.

As the Linglong One’s developers at CNNC have acknowleged, large reactors are likely more appropriate for China’s domestic market, though there is growing overseas demand for SMRs as their small size enables more flexible deployment while adding inherent safety. The integral design of reactors like the ACP100 eliminates the piping that normally connects the core and steam generators. A fully passive safety system is capable of removing heat via natural processes in emergency conditions.

NPIC began exploring integral SMRs as early as 2003. Its vision was to design a reactor that could fulfill the functions of desalination and steam supply as well as power generation. The ACP100 project was formally launched in 2010. Research and development began in earnest the following year, yielding a preliminary design by 2014. In 2016, the ACP100 became the first SMR to pass the IAEA’s safety review. Construction began in July of 2021 and is expected to be finished by 2026.

Installation of the ACP100 core module | Source: CNNC

The core module upon its arrival at the Changjiang site on July 26 | Source: CNNC

1:4 mockup of the ACP100 core module | Source: CNNC

The first ACP100 core module ready to be shipped | Source: CNNC

Russia Develops Underwater Reactor to Power Arctic Fossil Fuel Extraction, Military Bases

Malakhit, one of Russia’s three main submarine design bureaus, is developing a new underwater nuclear power module to provide energy for Arctic shelf fossil fuel extraction operations as well as remote Arctic garrisons. The Submersible Underwater Energy Module (Погружной подводный энергетический модуль, ПЭМ, or PEM) consists of two reactors with 20 MW of total electric power. Underwater operation is expected to reduce the possibility of collision with surface ice. Two types of modules are available. The first, with a displacement of 3,570 tons, is capable of floating on the surface of the ocean or diving to any depth up to 400 meters. The module is 54 meters in length, 16.6 meters in width, and 12.1 meters in height. Meanwhile, the second type, with a displacement of merely 3,060 tons, is designed to rest solely on the seafloor within a depth of 400m. It is 82, 8.6, and 9.3 meters in length, width, and height dimensions. Each unit would operate autonomously with check-ups necessary only every three months. Each check-up will be conducted by up to six specialists. Personnel and cargo can be brought on board via the docking of submersibles when the module is submerged. Diving will be controlled via 8 anchor cables. Apart from avoiding surface ice collisions, the suspension of the module at a depth under water is expected to improve stability and seismic resistance.

Illustration of the PEM underwater nuclear power module | Source: Rosatom

Apart from Malakhit, the Rubin submarine design bureau also developed an underwater nuclear power module for the “Iceberg” (Айсберг) project between 2015 and 2016. That earlier design had a rated power of 24 MWe and an operating lifetime of 30 years and could supposedly operate for 8,000 hours without refueling or maintenance. Rubin claimed like Malakhit that its underwater nuclear power module was designed to power the extraction of oil and gas on the Arctic shelf in heavy surface ice conditions and supply electricity to Arctic military installations. The Foundation for Advanced Research Projects (Фонд перспективных исследований, ФПИ) specializing in military technology development oversaw the project, with support from the Russian Ministry of Defense. The Russian navy would provide physical protection, according to earlier visions.

The underwater uncrewed autonomous energy module designed by Rubin | Source: Rubin

Rosatom Prepares to Construct Land-Based SMRs, Advances Export of Floating NPPs

Rosatom has concluded an agreement with the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug regarding the construction of a Shelf-M microreactor on the latter’s territory. The agreement, signed on the margins of the St. Petersburg International Economic Forum in June, envisions the deployment of a Shelf-M reactor to power mining operations at the Sovinoye gold deposit and supply electricity to local settlements. The unit is expected to be completed by 2030. Chukotka is home to the Bilibino NPP with four 12MWe EGP-6 light-water graphite-moderated reactors, three of which are still operational. Its coastal town of Pevek is now hosting Russia’s Akademik Lomonosov floating NPP.

Shelf-M is an integral PWR-type microreactor with a 10 MW electric power capacity. It has a design life of up to 60 years with an 8-year refueling period. Each modular unit is 11 meters in length and 8 meters in width and can be transported from site to site. While the Shelf-M integrates passive safety systems, natural circulation is insufficient for cooling purposes when the reactor is at full power. Rosatom claims that units deployed after 2032 may be remotely operated, pending the successful testing of automated control systems on the pilot unit.

On April 21, Rosatom subsidiary Rosenergoatom received the license to construct a land-based RITM-200N SMR in the Ust-Yansky district of Sakha-Yakutia, an autonomous republic in the Russian Far East. The PWR-based RITM-200 reactor has been used to power the latest generation of Russia’s nuclear icebreakers, hence Rosatom’s confidence in its performance in Arctic conditions. The project in Yakutia will be the first attempt to deploy the reactor on land. Preparatory work is ongoing at the construction site, according to Rosatom CEO Alexei Likhachev. Infrastructure surrounding the site, including temporary housing for workers, is also being built. The reactor itself is expected to enter into operation by 2028. The 55 MWe of planned output will be used to power the mining of Siberian gold and tin deposits. Rosatom hopes the demonstration project can stimulate the export of similar units abroad.

On June 15, Rosatom signed an agreement with TSS Group on “the basic conditions of creating an energy fleet for overseas markets based on floating RITM-200M reactor units.” TSS Group is a large provider of fracking equipment and services. The two sides plan to create a joint venture to build and market overseas a series of floating NPPs more than 100 MWe in power. The Middle East, Southeast Asia, and Africa are seen as priority markets. Legally and financially binding documents are forthcoming. The fleet is expected to enter service between 2029 and 2036.

In May, Rosatom subsidiary Rosatomflot signed a contract with United Shipbuilding Corporation subsidiary Baltiyskiy Zavod to build a multifunctional nuclear service ship (многофункциональное судно атомно-технологического обслуживания, or МСАТО) designed to refuel Russia’s fleet of nuclear-powered icebreakers and floating nuclear power plants – both the Akademik Lomonosov and the modernized floating energy unit (модернизированный плавучий энергоблок, or МПЭБ). The vessel, designated project 22770, will be 158.8 meters in length, 26 meters in width, and 22,661 tons in water displacement. It will also have Arc5 class icebreaking capability. The cost of building the vessel is borne 50% by the Russian state budget and 50% by Rosatom.

The project 22770 multifunctional nuclear service ship | Source: Rosatom

Chinese Thorium Molten-Salt Reactor Receives Operating License

On June 7, China’s Ministry of Ecology and Environment issued a 10-year operating license for the country’s 2MWt molten salt experimental reactor TMSR-LF1, which will be used for the development of the country’s thorium-based reactor. The license recipient and facility operator is the Shanghai Institute of Applied Physics of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (中国科学院上海应用物理研究所), or SINAC, which specializes in thorium-based molten salt reactors.

The world’s commercial reactors currently run on the uranium-plutonium fuel cycle, where energy is produced via the fission of uranium-235 and plutonium-239 isotopes. In a thorium fuel cycle, on the other hand, the naturally occurring thorium-232 isotope would absorb a single neutron to become uranium-233, which, in turn, undergoes fission to produce energy. The molten-salt design, where a chloride or fluoride salt in high-temperature, low-pressure liquid form acts as both the reactor fuel and coolant, is particularly suited for the thorium fuel cycle, in addition to being a fourth-generation advanced reactor concept with superior inherent safety characteristics.

Prototypes of molten salt coolant circuits and other key equipment | Source: SINAP

Fluoride salt (upper-left), nickel-based alloy, and graphite (lower-right) used for the TSMR project | Source: SINAP

China is particularly eager to commercialize the thorium fuel cycle given its abundant thorium reserves. In fact, both China and the United States explored thorium molten-salt reactors in the 1960s and 1970s. In its Molten Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE), Oak Ridge National Laboratory ran a full-fledged reactor on liquid U-233 fuel for 13,000 hours from 1968 to 1969. SINAP, for its part, studied both the thorium fuel cycle and molten-salt reactor technology half a century ago but did not progress beyond a zero-power facility due to material-related constraints.

China’s contemporary thorium molten-salt reactor program (TMSR) was launched in 2011. A test stand was constructed in order to simulate the technology from 2016 to 2018. The construction of the experimental reactor began in September, 2018, and was completed by 2021. The plan is to conduct testing at the facility in preparation for the deployment of a demonstration thorium molten-salt reactor by 2030, to be followed by commercial units. As an experimental reactor, the TMSR-LF1 is expected to run for 60 effective full power days every year, or a total of 300 effective full power days, over a period of 10 years with no refueling necessary in the interim. The reactor site in China’s northwestern Gansu Province is known as Hongshagang and is located at 38°57’ 31’’N, 102°36’ 55’’E, according to the project’s environmental impact report published in May of 2019. Investment in the TMSR-LF1 project was estimated at 771.45 million yuan. There are plans to construct a 10 MWt TMSR-SF1 solid fuel experimental reactor with molten-salt coolant as well as a pyro-processing facility subsequently.

Layout of the Hongshagang complex, with the TSMR reactor building located in the north | Source: SINAP/MEE

Design of the TMSR-LF1 experimental reactor. The core, main pumps, and heat exchanger between the primary and secondary circuits are all located within the reactor vessel. Heat from the secondary circuit is released into the atmosphere. The reactor is equipped with passive heat removal systems and has inherent safety features such as a high negative temperature coefficient of reactivity as well as the presence of high-heat-capacity graphite and molten salt within the reactor core. Further, the molten salt itself has an arresting effect on certain radioactive substances like Cesium-137 to prevent their release into the atmosphere in case of an accident. The fuel salt is LiF-BeF₂-ZrF₄-UF₄ in a 65.30%-28.71%-4.79%-1.20% ratio, where the uranium is enriched to 19.75% U-235, and lithium – 99.95% Li-7, while the coolant salt in the secondary circuit is LiF-BeF₂. Graphite is used as the structural material for the reactor’s 244 fuel channels. The UNS N10003 nickel-based alloy invented by Oak Ridge National Laboratory serves as the material for reactor components exposed to molten salt. Apart from the fuel channels, there are six control rod channels, one temperature measurement channel, one experimental measurement channel, one neutron source channel, one fuel loading channel, and one liquid level measurement channel within the core. Reactivity is controlled via control rods equipped with two different control rod drive mechanisms | Source: SINAP/MEE

TMSR-LF1 reactor core | Source: SINAP/MEE

TMSR-LF1 reactor core (top view) | Source: SINAP/MEE

China Makes Breakthrough in Structural Steel for Lead-Bismuth-Cooled Fast Reactor

China has acquired the ability to manufacture corrosion-resistant structural steel for its fourth-generation lead-cooled fast reactor (LFR) at industrial scale. The material has the ability to resist lead-bismuth alloy corrosion at above 510 degrees Celsius, the temperature that the alloy is expected to reach when acting as coolant for LFRs. As a fourth-generation design concept, LFRs have the advantage of inherently safe and efficient operation. The corrosion of structural steels is a major obstacle to the concept’s realization.

China has forged ahead with the development of its CLEAR-series lead-cooled reactors. In addition to large reactors up to 1000 MW in thermal power, the country is building and testing mobile microreactors, with possible military application, based on lead coolant technology. The newly acquired capability of producing structural material for reactors utilizing lead-bismuth coolants will advance these endeavors by enabling the construction of full-scale demonstration units.

Newly produced liquid lead-bismuth alloy corrosion resistant material | Source: China Institute of Atomic Energy/National Nuclear Safety Administration

Mockup of FDS’s truck-mounted mobile lead-cooled reactor | Source: People’s Daily

Prototype of FDS’s mobile lead-cooled reactor | Source: FDS

Rosatom Offers Nuclear Technology to African Countries, Advances Overseas Uranium Extraction

Alexei Likhachev and officials of African countries attending the Russia-Africa summit | Source: Rosatom

The second Russia-Africa summit took place on July 27 and 28 in St. Petersburg, Russia. Prominent on the agenda was a Rosatom-sponsored plenary session titled “Nuclear Technologies in African Development.” The discussion featured officials from a number of African states, including Egypt, Rwanda, Tanzania, Zimbabwe, and Burundi.

Egypt’s top nuclear energy official reaffirmed the value of the El Dabaa NPP project, pursued jointly with Rosatom, to the country’s energy and industrial development objectives. Director General of Rwanda’s Atomic Energy Board, meanwhile, said that the country would like to consider the use of nuclear energy to raise its 70% electrification rate. Rosatom CEO Alexei Likhachev said during the summit that Rosatom can offer a wide range of nuclear power solutions, including SMRs and floating NPPs, to African states via various arrangements, from usual EPC contracts to co-ownership to the sale of electricity from floating units built, owned, and operated by Rosatom. According to Likhachev, African countries have expressed particular interest in floating NPPs, and Rosatom has proposed creating a nuclear energy fleet to supply power to them from offshore in order to minimize the cost of infrastructure construction.

In the way of specific partnerships, Russia signed civil nuclear cooperation agreements with Burundi, Zimbabwe, and Ethiopia on the margins of the summit. The agreement with Ethiopia was a roadmap defining steps the two countries would take in the 2023-2025 period to advance their civil nuclear cooperation, such as exploring NPP construction and establishing a nuclear science and technology center. On the other hand, the intergovernmental agreement signed with Burundi envisions a role for Russia in helping to improve its nuclear infrastructure and legal regulatory framework. The two countries also agreed to cooperate on basic and applied nuclear research, isotope production, and the training of nuclear specialists. A joint coordination committee will be created to organize research and exchanges. The Burundian energy minister said in November of last year that the country was interested in working with Rosatom to develop nuclear energy in the country. Foreign Minister Albert Shingiro announced on the margins of the summit that a Rosatom delegation will visit the country in September to discuss the details of the two countries’ civil nuclear cooperation.

Rosatom is reportedly discussing various forms of civil nuclear cooperation with some 20 African countries, including Rwanda, Nigeria, Ghana, Zambia, Ethiopia, Uganda, Tanzania, and Namibia, among others. On the one hand, there is little doubt about these countries’ interest in Russian nuclear technology despite the Western sanctions that have been placed on Rosatom. On the other hand, Rosatom may have limited ability, particularly in terms of financing, to undertake many more nuclear projects on the continent. According to Likhachev’s announcement at the summit, Rosatom had recently conducted its first talks with the New Development Bank, formerly known as the BRICS Development Bank, to secure financing for a few of its land-based and mobile SMR projects. It remains to be seen whether the multilateral financing institution may be able to finance the expansion of Rosatom’s project portfolio in Africa.

As it provides nuclear technology and services to African states, Rosatom is hoping also to acquire a share of the continent’s uranium resources. Russia’s ambassador to Tanzania said on the margins of the summit that Rosatom is about to launch a pilot uranium mining project in the African country “in the coming months,” to be followed by full-scale uranium mining and production. Rosatom’s local subsidiary Mantra is developing the Mkuju River uranium mining project that is considered the most advanced in Tanzania. The deposit being developed is one of the world’s largest with 152 million tons of uranium ore reserves. Five tons of yellowcake will be produced during the pilot phase to be launched this year while full-scale capacity is expected to reach 3,000 tons annually. The ore will be mined via in-situ leaching, a modern, economical method with minimum environmental impact. In addition, the Russian national nuclear corporation plans to launch the mining of uranium in Namibia by 2029. A subsidiary of Uranium One (Rosatom) is currently surveying local deposits. The work is expected to be finished by 2026. If successfully launched, Rosatom’s uranium mining project in Namibia is expected to yield 3,000 tons of natural uranium per year. China is currently the dominant player in Namibia’s uranium mining sector.

Likhachev Meets with Putin, Discusses Nuclear Fuel Exports, Acquisition of Uranium Deposit in Kazakhstan

Vladimir Putin meeting with Alexei Likhachev | Source: Kremlin

Russian president Vladimir Putin met with Rosatom CEO Alexei Likhachev in the Kremlin earlier this month. A partial transcript of the meeting was released on the Kremlin’s official website. According to Likhachev, Rosatom is expecting to attain record earnings this year. Its nuclear fuel exports have increased to all countries, especially so-called “friendly countries” in Asia, the Middle East, and Africa, where such exports grew by 60-70%. Domestically, the corporation is continuing to pursue the presidential task of increasing nuclear power’s share in Russia’s energy mix from 20% to 25%. Its strategy is to focus on expanding nuclear infrastructure in the Urals, Siberia, and the Far East. In particular, Likhachev named the Chelyabinsk and Khabarovsk regions as being favorably disposed toward nuclear development.

Commenting on overseas uranium extraction, Likhachev revealed that Rosatom had become second in the world in terms of its ownership of uranium reserves following its acquisition of a 49% stake in the Budenoskoye project in Kazakhstan. Thanking Putin for his support, Likhachev effectively acknowledged the role of the Russian state in fostering the acquisition deal. Budenovskoye is one of the largest uranium deposits in the world. Its blocks 6 and 7, with 120,100 tU of total reserves, belong to Kazatomprom (51%) and the Stepnogorsk Mining and Chemical Combine (49%). Two Rosatom subsidiaries acquired the combine from a Russian billionaire and Kazakh oligarch last year, a deal that gave Rosatom its 49% stake in blocks 6 and 7 of the Budenovskoye deposit.

Alleged Ukrainian Drone Attacks on Chernobyl-Style RBMK Reactors Inside Russia

The RBMK reactors at the Smolensk (upper left) and Kursk (bottom) Nuclear Power Plants have the same signature ventilation stack as Chernobyl unit 4 (upper right) | Source: RIA Novosti, Leonid Varlamov, Igor Kostin

A drone crashed near an apartment building in the Russian city of Kurchatov, Kursk Oblast, on July 14. The city is 4 kilometers away from the Kursk Nuclear Power Plant, where three RBMK reactors are currently operational. The Russian authorities have characterized the incident as an attempted Ukrainian attack. Kremlin spokesperson Dmitri Peskov said that Russian air defense proved effective but did not say whether the drone crashed on its own or was shot down. There are unofficial reports about the firing of air defense systems around the city and the explosion of the drone, which appears to be self-made and powered by a Taiwanese-made model jet engine. A day earlier, the governor of Kursk Oblast announced that Russian border guards had forced down an “enemy” drone loaded with explosives that blew up as it crashed. Likewise, the governor of the neighboring Voronezh Oblast confirmed the downing of three drones in his jurisdiction.

The Russian authorities reported a similar drone attack on the Kursk NPP in April of this year, alleging at the time that the attack was thwarted by air defense. In August of last year, the Russian FSB accused Ukraine of sending agents to sabotage utility poles that transmitted power from the same facility, claiming that the act led to “a breach in the NPP’s technical functioning.” Rosatom CEO Alexei Likhachev said in early June that drone intrusions against Russian NPPs had become more frequent and were now occurring on a daily basis alongside cyberattacks and false bomb threats. He claimed that the FSB and Russia’s national guard, Rosgvardia, had the situation under control and that all Russian nuclear power facilities, regardless of location, were “reliably protected.” But he did acknowledge that the daily threats were taking a psychological toll on personnel at Rosatom’s nuclear facilities. On July 13, the day before the drone crash, Likhachev reaffirmed the effectiveness of physical protection around Russian NPPs, especially those near the Ukrainian border.

The Kursk NPP supplies 52% of the electricity used by the Central Black Earth Economic Region consisting of the Kursk, Belgorod, Voronezh, Lipetsk, and Tambov Oblasts. It also supplies power to 90% of industrial enterprises in the Kursk Oblast. In early July, head of Russia’s Security Council Dmitri Medvedev threatened strikes against the South Ukraine, Rivne, and Khmelnitsky NPPs in Ukraine as well as other nuclear facilities in Eastern Europe in response to reports that Ukraine was attempting to attack Russia’s Smolensk NPP using NATO-supplied drones. The Smolensk NPP is now planning to install an anti-drone defense system costing 348.7 million rubles (more than 3.5 million USD).

The Kursk and Smolensk NPPs are two of the three Russian nuclear power facilities that operate the RBMK-1000 – the same type of reactor as the one that exploded at Chernobyl on April 26, 1986. Both are close to Russia’s border with Ukraine. Russia is the only country in the world to operate RBMK-type reactors. By contrast, both Ukraine and Lithuania decommissioned their RBMKs in the 2000s on account of safety concerns. A total of 8 RBMK reactors are still operational in Russia at the Kursk, Leningrad, and Smolensk NPPs, with an additional three having been permanently shut down only recently. The breakdown of Russia’s RBMK units by location is as follows.

Kursk NPP:

1. Unit 1: grid-connected on December 19, 1976, now permanently shut down

2. Unit 2: grid-connected on January 28, 1979, currently operational, expected to be shut down for decommissioning in early 2024 as it reaches its 45-year design life. Two generation III+ VVER-TOI reactors are being constructed to replace the capacity of the first two units. The first reactor is expected to come online by 2025, and the second – by 2027

3. Unit 3: grid-connected on October 17, 1983, currently operational, resumed full-power operation after scheduled maintenance on August 21

4. Unit 4: grid-connected on December 2, 1985, currently operational, entered into scheduled maintenance on August 18 that is expected to last 65 days

Leningrad NPP:

1. Unit 1: grid-connected on December 21, 1973, now permanently shut down

2. Unit 2: grid-connected on July 11, 1975, now permanently shut down. As of August, the first and second units of the Leningrad NPP have had all their 3361 fuel assemblies removed. The units were shut down in 2018 and 2020, respectively, after 45 years of service, and are now preparing for decommissioning. Two new reactors of the VVER-1200 design were built to replace their capacity

3. Unit 3: grid-connected on December 7, 1979, currently operational

4. Unit 4: grid-connected on February 9, 1981, currently operational. The third and fourth units will be replaced by two more VVER-1200 units that are expected to be completed by 2030 and 2032, respectively. Until then, St. Petersburg and the surrounding region will continue to depend on the two RBMK and two VVER units at the Leningrad NPP for half of their power requirements

Smolensk NPP:

1. Unit 1: grid-connected on December 9, 1982, currently operational

2. Unit 2: grid-connected on May 31, 1985, currently operational

3. Unit 3: grid-connected on January 17, 1990, currently operational

Rosatom claims that the RBMK reactors currently in operation have gone through extensive modernization such as the introduction of new, automated reactor control and protection systems to integrate lessons learned after Chernobyl and are now no less safe than Western reactors of the same period. Some Russian experts say that the RBMK, by virtue of its channel-type design, allows incremental, “non-stop” modernization. It was through a wave of such modernizations in the 1990s and early 2000s that Russia was able to extend the operating life of most of its RBMKs from 30 to 45 years. In fact, Smolensk unit 3 just had a new reactor control and protection system installed in 2019 and is now expected to operate until 2035. Further lifetime extensions of up to 4-5 years have been considered.

The Taiwanese Kingtech K-210G turbine reportedly mounted on the drone that crashed near the Kursk NPP | Source: Mash/Telegram

IAEA Director General Grossi Visits China, Discusses Zaporizhzhia, Fukushima, AUKUS, Meets with Rosatom CEO Likhachev

IAEA Director General Rafael Grossi paid his first official visit to China in late May. The week-long visit consisted of high-level meetings with Chinese officials as well as tours to Chinese nuclear facilities and research institutes. The latter included the Shidaowan Nuclear Power Plant in Shandong Province, where the world’s first fourth-generation high-temperature gas-cooled reactor operates, the China Institute of Atomic Energy (CIAE), where nuclear and radiological research is conducted, the Shanghai Nuclear Engineering Research & Design Institute (SNERDI), which designed China’s first nuclear power plant and has been indigenizing the Westinghouse AP1000 reactor, and the State Nuclear Security Technology Center, which provides technical support for China’s nuclear security and nuclear material management efforts, among others. Multiple cooperation agreements were signed covering “small modular reactors, nuclear fusion, and nuclear data, fuel cycle and waste management, as well as communication activities,” according to the IAEA.

As for high-level meetings, Grossi met with representatives of the China Atomic Energy Authority (CAEA) and Ministry of Ecology and Environment – partly responsible for regulating nuclear safety. The head of the CAEA praised the Director General for his “efforts promoting cooperation in nuclear safety and security while coordinating to resolve sensitive hotspot nuclear issues.” These refer to the discharge of waste water from Fukushima, the crisis surrounding Zaporizhzhia, and the transfer of nuclear-powered submarines to Australia under the AUKUS alliance. On the first issue, the Director General reaffirmed the Agency’s responsibility in conducting independent monitoring before, during, and after the discharge and, according to the Chinese Foreign Ministry’s readout, pledged that the Agency “will not endorse any country’s discharge of nuclear-contaminated water into the sea and will not agree to any activities that violate international safety standards.”

The remaining issues were discussed during meetings with then Chinese Foreign Minister Qin Gang and Vice Foreign Minister Ma Zhaoxu. The latter has overseen Beijing’s engagement with Moscow. Grossi said following his meeting with Qin that “China has given decisive support to [his] efforts to protect the safety and security of Ukraine’s Zaporizhzhia nuclear power plant.” He met shortly after with Rosatom CEO Alexei Likhachev, who was in Beijing on official visit along with a Russian government delegation, a meeting that was aimed at securing Russian support for the five-point plan to secure the Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant, which Grossi presented to the UN Security Council on May 30.

Grossi visiting the China Atomic Energy Authority (CAEA) | Source: CAEA

Grossi visiting Shanghai Electric, a supplier of nuclear power equipment | Source: IAEA

Grossi meeting with Likhachev in Beijing | Source: Rosatom

China Approves Six New Reactor Units, Aims for Hundreds More

On July 31, China’s State Council approved the construction of six large reactor units, in addition to the ten approved last year. Of these, Ningde-5/6 and Shidaowan-1/2 will be constructed using China’s indigenous HPR1000, or Hualong One, technology, while Xudapu will host two units of the CAP1000, adapted from the imported U.S. AP1000 design.

As of July, China’s total installed capacity stood at 2,739.74 GW, of which its 55 nuclear power units* in commercial operation contributed 56.76 GW, or slightly more than 2%. Whereas the country’s nuclear capacity grew merely 2.2% year-on-year, wind capacity grew by 14.3%, and solar by 42.9%. The rapid growth of renewables has all but diluted nuclear’s share in the national energy mix. That, however, may be changing.

China has been approving more reactor units every year, from 4 in 2019 and 2020 to 5 in 2021 and 10 in 2022. Including the CFR-600 demonstration fast reactors at Xiapu, the country has a total of 24 commercial reactors under construction. An additional six have been approved with construction pending. The 14^th Five-Year Plan (2021-2025) foresees the country’s installed nuclear capacity rising to 70 GW in the next three years. Going forward, the rate of construction may accelerate further.

China National Nuclear Corporation’s in-house strategic think tank is assessing the country’s future uranium requirements based on the target of 250 GW in PWR capacity by 2045. To reach that target, the Chinese nuclear industry will have to start construction on 8-10 large reactor units every year for the next 20 years. It is an open question whether the sector’s current maximum capacity of 40 units under simultaneous construction will be sufficient, especially if it expands its overseas portfolio via reactor export.

On July 14, Pakistan held the groundbreaking ceremony for its third Hualong One unit, to be built at the Chashma Nuclear Power Plant (CHASNUPP). The site already hosts four Chinese CNP-300 reactors. The latest deal for the fifth unit is worth some $4.8 billion, after a $100 million discount reportedly offered by China. In addition to CHASNUPP, Pakistan also operates a nuclear power complex in Karachi (KANUPP), where the first two Hualong One units entered commercial operation in 2021 and 2022, respectively. Pakistan is the only country to have imported the Chinese third-generation reactor.

The groundbreaking ceremony for Chashma-5 | Source: CNNC

Regardless of whether China’s nuclear vendors can successfully expand their overseas portfolio, it is clear that their emphasis will be on the domestic market for the foreseeable future. No other country in the world has the money to build, or the demand to justify, more than 150 reactors over 20 years. For reference, the United States and France, the two current leaders in nuclear power, have a total of 149 operational reactor units combined. The mere consideration of such a massive expansion in nuclear power capacity makes China globally unique.

*The current breakdown of China’s nuclear power assets across the four state-owned corporations involved in the sector is as follows.

China National Nuclear Corporation (CNNC) controls 25 reactor units in commercial operation, with a total installed capacity of 23.75 GW:

1. Qinshan units (CANDU, CNP300/600/1000): 6.664 GW

2. Sanmen-1/2 (AP1000): 2.5 GW

3. Tianwan-1/2/3/4/5/6 (VVER-1000 & CNP1000): 6.608 GW

4. Fuqing-1/2/3/4/5/6 (CNP1000 & Hualong One): 6.678 GW

5. Changjiang-1/2 (CNP600): 1.3 GW

An additional 13 reactor units are approved or under construction, with a total installed capacity of 15.143 GW:

1. Sanmen-3/4 (CAP1000): 2.502 GW

2. Tianwan-7/8 (VVER-1200): 2.53 GW

3. Zhangzhou-1/2/3/4 (Hualong One): 4.856 GW

4. Changjiang SMR (ACP-100): 0.125 GW

5. Xudapu-3/4 (VVER-1200): 2.548 GW

6. Xudapu-1/2 (CAP1000): 2.582 GW

An additional two CFR-600 demonstration fast reactors are under construction at Xiapu.

Meanwhile, China General Nuclear Power Corporation (CGN) controls 27 reactor units in commercial operation, with a total installed capacity of approximately 30.6 GW:

1. Daya Bay-1/2 (M310): 1.968 GW

2. Ling’ao-1/2 (M310): 1.98 GW

3. Ling’ao-3/4 (CPR1000): 2.172 GW

4. Hongyanhe-1/2/3/4/5/6 (CPR1000 & ACPR1000): 6.713 GW

5. Yangjiang-1/2/3/4/5/6 (CPR1000 & ACPR1000): 6.516 GW

6. Fangchenggang-1/2 (CPR1000): 2.172 GW

7. Fangchenggang-3 (Hualong One): 1.188 GW

8. Ningde-1/2/3/4 (CPR1000): 4.356 GW

9. Taishan-1/2 (EPR): 3.5 GW

An additional 7 reactor units are under construction, with a total installed capacity of around 8.4 GW:

1. Taipingling-1/2 (Hualong One): 2.404 GW

2. San’ao-1/2 (Hualong One): 2.42 GW

3. Fangchengang-4 (Hualong One): 1.18 GW

4. Lufeng-5/6 (Hualong One): 2.4 GW

An additional 2 units (Ningde-5/6, Hualong One, 2.42 GW) are approved with construction pending.

State Power Investment Corporation (SPIC) is responsible for the two AP1000 units in commercial operation at the Haiyang NPP, where two more CAP1000 units (Haiyang-3/4) are being built. An additional two CAP1400 Guohe One units are under construction at Shidaowan.

In recent years, the Huaneng Group has emerged as a fourth state-owned corporation with nuclear-sector activities. The only operating reactor under its control is the fourth-generation high-temperature gas-cooled reactor HTR-PM at Shidaowan, though it also has a controlling stake in Changjiang-3/4 – currently under construction – and participates in the Shidaowan-1/2 and Changjiang-1/2 projects, plus the CFR600 demonstration project at Xiapu.